The Epistle to the Romans — Interlinear: Themes, Outlines & Translation Notes

A consolidated companion to the romans-interlinear data set: every chapter of Romans (1–16) rendered as a six-tier Greek reverse-interlinear (Greek · gloss · parsing/case · syntax · semantic force · lexical note), with per-verse discourse analysis and a chapter argument-outline.

This document gathers, in one place, the theme, the argument outline (the outline movements authored into each data file), and the translation / textual / exegetical notes (the text_note of each file, reproduced verbatim) for all sixteen chapters — followed by a cross-chapter summary of the major translation and interpretive cruxes that were deliberately annotated rather than silently resolved.

Scope

Each annotated word carries Greek, a working gloss, color-coded grammatical case, parsing (Tense·Voice·Mood·Person·Number + lemma), a Wallace-style syntactic-function label, an aspectual semantic-force label (verbal forms), and a condensed lexical note. The Greek follows the standard critical text (uniform across NA28 / SBLGNT / THGNT in its main wording, and itself an ancient public-domain text); the copyrighted NA28 apparatus is not reproduced.

The argument of the book

The macro-structure of the whole book — its major movements — under which the chapter-by-chapter detail below unfolds. (Section divisions are interpretive; the more common analysis is generally followed.)

• I · 1:1–17 — Introduction: the gospel as God's saving power. Salutation (1:1–7), thanksgiving and Paul's longing to visit (1:8–15), and the letter's thesis — the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith (1:16–17).
• II · 1:18–3:20 — The universal reign of sin: all under judgment. God's wrath against Gentile idolatry and the threefold 'gave them over' (1:18–32); the moralist and the privileged Jew (2:1–3:8); the scriptural verdict that none is righteous (3:9–20).
• III · 3:21–5:21 — Justification by faith. The righteousness of God now manifested through faith in Christ, set forth as propitiation (3:21–31); Abraham the proof-case (4); the peace, hope, and security of justification, and the Adam/Christ contrast (5).
• IV · 6:1–8:39 — The new life in Christ. Dead to sin and alive to God in union with Christ (6); released from the law and the divided self (7); life in the Spirit, from 'no condemnation' to the love from which nothing can separate (8).
• V · 9:1–11:36 — Israel and the purpose of God. Sovereign election and the potter (9); Israel's unbelief and the nearness of the word of faith (10); the olive tree, the mystery of 'all Israel,' and the doxology (11).
• VI · 12:1–15:13 — The transformed life. The living sacrifice, one body and many gifts, and genuine love (12); submission to authorities and love as the law's fulfillment (13); the weak and the strong, welcomed as Christ welcomed (14:1–15:13).
• VII · 15:14–16:27 — Conclusion. Paul's priestly ministry and travel plans (15:14–33); Phoebe's commendation, the roll of greetings, a warning, and the closing doxology (16).

Chapter-by-chapter

Romans 1 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Α′

Theme. The gospel as God's saving power, and the revelation of wrath against suppressed truth.

Outline.

• A · 1:1–7 — Salutation. An expanded epistolary opening: sender (1), the gospel anchored in promise and centered on God's risen Son (2–4), Paul's commission to the nations (5–6), and the grace-and-peace greeting to Rome (7).
• B · 1:8–15 — Thanksgiving and longing to visit. Thanksgiving for their famed faith (8) → an oath that Paul prays constantly to come (9–10) → his purpose: mutual encouragement and fruit (11–13) → his debtor's obligation to Greek and barbarian (14–15).
• C · 1:16–17 — Thesis: the gospel as God's saving power. The letter's theme: unashamed of the gospel, which is God's power for salvation to everyone who believes (16); in it God's righteousness is revealed from faith to faith (17), clinched by Habakkuk 2:4.
• D · 1:18–23 — Wrath revealed: truth suppressed, God exchanged. God's wrath answers the suppression of truth (18); God is plainly known through creation, leaving all without excuse (19–20); yet they refused him glory and thanks, and exchanged his glory for idols (21–23).
• E · 1:24–27 — God gave them over: degrading passions. The first two 'gave them over' judgments: to impurity (24) — grounded in exchanging God's truth for the lie and worshiping the creature (25) — and to dishonorable passions (26–27).
• F · 1:28–32 — The debased mind and the catalogue of vices. The third 'gave them over': to a worthless mind (28), issuing in a long vice-list (29–31) and the culminating verdict — they know the just decree yet do and applaud such things (32).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 1, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. Orthographic variants (e.g. ηὐχαρίστησαν / εὐχαρίστησαν at v.21) are not noted.

Romans 2 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Β′

Theme. God's impartial judgment by works; the privilege of the law does not exempt; circumcision of the heart.

Outline.

• A · 2:1–5 — No excuse for the one who judges. The verdict of 1:18–32 is turned on the moralizer; censorious, hard-hearted judging only stores up wrath (climax, v.5).
• B · 2:6–11 — Judgment by works, without partiality. Thesis (6) → two destinies in an A–B–B′–A′ chiasm (7–10) → ground: God shows no partiality (11).
• C · 2:12–16 — Judged by the light one has. Possessing the law does not exempt; doers—not hearers—are justified; Gentiles show the law on the heart; all resolved at the eschatological day.
• D · 2:17–24 — The Jew who boasts in the law. A long conditional cataloguing privilege (17–20) is left suspended, then answered by accusing questions (21–23) and clinched by Scripture (24).
• E · 2:25–29 — Circumcision of the heart. Outward circumcision profits only with obedience; the real Jew is inward—circumcised in heart by the Spirit, not the letter (climax, v.29).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 2, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. At v.13 the article [τῷ] is bracketed, reflecting editorial uncertainty about its originality.

Romans 3 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Γ′

Theme. All under sin (Jew and Greek); the law's verdict; God's righteousness now manifested through faith in Christ — propitiation.

Outline.

• A · 3:1–8 — Objections answered. Diatribe with an imagined interlocutor: the Jew's advantage is real — entrusted with God's oracles (1–2) — and human faithlessness cannot annul God's faithfulness or justice (3–6); the antinomian 'do evil that good may come' is slander, justly condemned (7–8).
• B · 3:9–18 — All under sin: the catena. The charge already laid (9) is clinched by a chain of Scripture (10–18): none righteous, none seeking God, all turned aside; throat, tongue, lips, mouth, feet, and eyes all indict — no fear of God before their eyes.
• C · 3:19–20 — The law's verdict: every mouth stopped. The law speaks to silence every mouth and make the whole world accountable to God (19); by works of law no flesh is justified — the law brings knowledge of sin, not acquittal (20).
• D · 3:21–26 — But now: the righteousness of God. The letter's heart: apart from law, God's righteousness is now manifested through faith in Christ for all who believe (21–23); justified freely by grace through the redemption in Christ, set forth as propitiation, vindicating God as both just and justifier (24–26).
• E · 3:27–31 — Boasting excluded; one God justifies all. Boasting is shut out by the law of faith (27–28); since God is one, he justifies circumcised and uncircumcised alike by faith (29–30); and faith does not abolish but upholds the law (31).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 3, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. Verses 10–18 are a catena of Old Testament citations (chiefly from the Psalms, with Isaiah); the wording follows the LXX as Paul cites it. At v.22 the genitive πίστεως Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ is rendered 'faith in Jesus Christ' (objective), though the subjective reading ('the faithfulness of Jesus Christ') is defensible and noted.

Romans 4 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Δ′

Theme. Abraham as the proof-case for justification by faith apart from works, expounding Genesis 15:6.

Outline.

• A · 4:1–8 — Reckoned, not earned. Abraham was justified by faith, not works (1–3): Genesis 15:6 says his faith was 'credited' as righteousness. Wages are owed, but righteousness is credited as a gift to the one who trusts the God who justifies the ungodly (4–5); David seconds it — blessed is the one whose sin God does not count (6–8).
• B · 4:9–12 — Before circumcision. The crediting (Gen 15) preceded circumcision (Gen 17), so it cannot depend on it (9–10). Circumcision was a seal of a righteousness already held by faith, making Abraham father of all who believe — uncircumcised and circumcised alike, if they share his faith (11–12).
• C · 4:13–17 — Through faith, not law. The promise (heir of the world) came through the righteousness of faith, not law (13); if heirs were by law, faith and promise are voided, for law works wrath (14–15). So the promise rests on grace, guaranteed to all the seed — Abraham the father of many nations before the life-giving God (16–17).
• D · 4:18–25 — Faith in the life-giving God. Against hope Abraham hoped, not weakening at his and Sarah's deadness but strengthened in faith, fully convinced God could perform his promise (18–21); so it was credited to him (22). Written for us too, who trust the God who raised Jesus — delivered for our trespasses, raised for our justification (23–25).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 4, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. The chapter expounds Genesis 15:6 (cited at v.3 and echoed throughout) together with Psalm 32:1–2 (vv.7–8) and Genesis 17:5 (v.17); the wording of the citations follows the LXX as Paul gives it.

Romans 5 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Ε′

Theme. The fruits and security of justification — peace, hope, the love of God — and the Adam/Christ contrast.

Outline.

• A · 5:1–5 — Peace and hope. Justified by faith, we have peace with God, standing access into grace, and exultant hope of glory (1–2); we even rejoice in sufferings, which forge endurance, proven character, and hope (3–4) — a hope that cannot disappoint, for God's love is poured into our hearts by the Spirit (5).
• B · 5:6–11 — God's love proved. While we were weak and ungodly, Christ died for us (6); beyond all human love, God shows his love in that Christ died for us while we were still sinners (7–8). Much more, then, justified and reconciled, we shall be saved from wrath and rejoice in God (9–11).
• C · 5:12–14 — Sin and death through Adam. Through one man sin entered the world and death through sin, spreading to all (12). Sin was in the world before the law, and death reigned from Adam to Moses even over non-imitators of Adam's transgression — Adam a type of the Coming One (13–14).
• D · 5:15–17 — The gift unlike the trespass. But the free gift is not like the trespass: where one man's trespass brought death to many, much more did God's grace abound to the many (15); the gift answers many trespasses with justification (16); and those who receive grace will reign in life through Christ (17).
• E · 5:18–21 — Adam and Christ summed. As one trespass brought condemnation to all, one righteous act brings justification of life to all (18); as one man's disobedience made many sinners, one man's obedience makes many righteous (19). Law increased the trespass, but grace super-abounded, reigning through righteousness to eternal life (20–21).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 5, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. At v.1 the manuscripts are divided between ἔχομεν ('we have peace,' indicative) and ἔχωμεν ('let us have peace,' subjunctive); NA28 prints the indicative, followed here, as better suiting the argument. At v.12 the phrase ἐφ' ᾧ ('because,' 'in whom,' or 'with the result that') is exegetically contested and is rendered 'because' with the alternatives noted.

Romans 6 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Ϛ′

Theme. Dead to sin and alive to God: union with Christ in death and resurrection; the two slaveries.

Outline.

• A · 6:1–4 — Dead to sin. Grace is no license to sin (1–2): those who died to sin cannot live in it. Baptized into Christ we were baptized into his death and buried with him, so that as he was raised, we might walk in newness of life (3–4).
• B · 6:5–11 — United with him. United with his death, we shall share his resurrection (5); our old self was crucified to break sin's dominion (6–7). If we died with Christ we will live with him, who dies no more (8–10) — so reckon yourselves dead to sin, alive to God (11).
• C · 6:12–14 — Do not let sin reign. Therefore do not let sin reign in your mortal body or yield your members to it as weapons of unrighteousness (12–13a); present yourselves to God as alive from the dead. Sin shall not have dominion, for you are under grace, not law (13b–14).
• D · 6:15–19 — Slaves of righteousness. Grace is still no license (15): you are slaves of whomever you obey — sin unto death or obedience unto righteousness (16). Thanks be to God, freed from sin you became slaves of righteousness (17–18); present your members to righteousness unto sanctification (19).
• E · 6:20–23 — The two harvests. As slaves of sin you were free from righteousness, and its end is death (20–21). But now, enslaved to God, your fruit leads to sanctification and its end is eternal life (22): for the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord (23).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 6, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. The chapter turns on the σύν- ('with') compounds of union with Christ (συνετάφημεν, συνεσταυρώθη, συζήσομεν) and on the double imperative to 'reckon' (λογίζεσθε, v.11) and 'present' (παραστήσατε, vv.13, 19) oneself to God.

Romans 7 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Ζ′

Theme. Release from the law; the law's relation to sin (holy, yet weaponized by sin); the divided self.

Outline.

• A · 7:1–6 — Released from the law. Law binds only the living (1): as a wife is freed by her husband's death (2–3), so believers, put to death to the law through Christ's body, belong now to the risen Christ to bear fruit for God (4). In the flesh the law aroused sinful passions unto death; now we serve in the Spirit's newness, not the letter's oldness (5–6).
• B · 7:7–12 — Is the law sin?. The law is not sin but exposes it (7): sin seized the commandment as a base of operations, producing every covetousness, and apart from law sin lies dead (8). When the commandment came, sin revived and 'I' died — the precept meant for life brought death (9–11). Yet the law is holy, righteous, and good (12).
• C · 7:13–20 — The divided self. It was sin, not the good law, that killed — sin shown utterly sinful (13). The law is spiritual, but 'I' am fleshly, sold under sin (14): I do not do the good I want but the evil I hate (15–17), for the willing is present but not the doing (18–20) — it is indwelling sin at work.
• D · 7:21–25 — The law of sin and the cry for rescue. A 'law' is at work: delighting in God's law in the inner self, yet seeing another law in the members wage war and take me captive (21–23). 'Wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death?' — thanks be to God through Jesus Christ (24–25).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 7, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. The identity of the 'I' (ἐγώ) in vv.7–25 — Paul's own pre-Christian experience, Adam, Israel under the law, the believer's ongoing struggle, or a rhetorical 'everyman' — is among the most contested questions in the letter; the present tenses of vv.14–25 especially divide interpreters. The notes mark the tensions rather than settling them. At v.18 a few witnesses add words after 'good'; the main wording is followed.

Romans 8 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Η′

Theme. Life in the Spirit — from 'no condemnation' to 'nothing can separate us from the love of God.'

Outline.

• A · 8:1–4 — No condemnation. No condemnation for those in Christ (1): the Spirit's law of life frees from the law of sin and death (2). What the law could not do, weakened by the flesh, God did — sending his Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and condemning sin in the flesh (3), so the law's requirement is fulfilled in those who walk by the Spirit (4).
• B · 8:5–11 — Flesh versus Spirit. Two existences, two mindsets, two destinies: flesh-mind is death and enmity to God, unable to submit or please him (5–8); but you are in the Spirit, if the Spirit dwells in you (9). Christ in you means life despite the mortal body, and the Spirit who raised Jesus will give life to your mortal bodies too (10–11).
• C · 8:12–17 — Sons of God. We are debtors not to the flesh but to the Spirit: by the Spirit put to death the deeds of the body and live (12–13). Those led by the Spirit are sons; we received the Spirit of adoption, crying 'Abba, Father' (14–15). The Spirit confirms we are God's children — heirs with Christ, if we suffer with him to be glorified with him (16–17).
• D · 8:18–25 — Glory and groaning. Present sufferings are nothing beside the coming glory (18). Creation, subjected to futility in hope, groans for the revealing of God's children and its own freedom from decay (19–22). We too groan, having the Spirit's firstfruits, awaiting adoption — the redemption of the body — and are saved in this hope, awaited with patience (23–25).
• E · 8:26–30 — The Spirit and the purpose. The Spirit helps our weakness, interceding with wordless groans according to God's will (26–27). All things work together for good to those who love God, called according to his purpose (28) — whom he foreknew, predestined to be conformed to his Son, called, justified, and glorified (29–30).
• F · 8:31–39 — Invincible love. If God is for us, who can be against us? He who gave his own Son will give us all things (31–32). No one can charge or condemn God's elect — Christ died, was raised, and intercedes (33–34). Nothing — hardship, powers, height, depth, all creation — can separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord (35–39).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 8, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. At v.1 the later addition 'who walk not according to the flesh…' (imported from v.4) is not part of the earliest text and is omitted. At v.2 the manuscripts vary between 'set you free' (σε) and 'set me free' (με); the second-person reading is followed. The punctuation of vv.33–34 (statements or rhetorical questions) is interpretive.

Romans 9 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Θ′

Theme. God's sovereign election and Israel's unbelief; the potter and the clay; the remnant.

Outline.

• A · 9:1-5 — Paul's anguish for Israel. Under solemn oath, Paul confesses great and unceasing sorrow (1-2): he could wish himself accursed for his kinsmen (3) — Israelites endowed with adoption, glory, covenants, law, worship, promises, the patriarchs, and the Messiah, who is God over all, blessed forever (4-5).
• B · 9:6-13 — God's word has not failed. God's promise has not failed, for not all ethnic Israel is the true Israel (6): the children of promise, not of flesh, are the seed — Isaac not Ishmael (7-9). Rebecca's twins, chosen before birth or works, show election rests on God's call, not deeds: 'the older will serve the younger,' 'Jacob I loved, Esau I hated' (10-13).
• C · 9:14-18 — God's freedom: mercy and hardening. Is God unjust? By no means (14): to Moses he declares free mercy (15), so it rests not on human will or effort but on God's mercy (16); to Pharaoh, that he was raised up to display God's power and name (17). God therefore has mercy on whom he wills and hardens whom he wills (18).
• D · 9:19-29 — The potter and the clay. To the objection 'why does he still find fault?' Paul answers: who are you to answer back to God (19-20)? The potter has the right over the clay (21). God endured vessels of wrath to make known his glory on vessels of mercy — called from Jews and Gentiles (22-24), as Hosea and Isaiah foretold: only a remnant will be saved (25-29).
• E · 9:30-33 — Israel stumbled over the stone. The paradoxical outcome: Gentiles who did not pursue righteousness attained it by faith (30), while Israel, pursuing a law of righteousness, did not reach it (31) — because they sought it by works, not faith, and stumbled over the stone in Zion; yet whoever believes in him will not be put to shame (32-33).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 9, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. At v.5 the punctuation is exegetically decisive: a comma after 'flesh' makes 'who is God over all, blessed forever' a description of Christ (affirming his deity); a full stop makes it a separate doxology to the Father. The chapter quotes Genesis (18:10, 14; 21:12; 25:23), Malachi (1:2-3), Exodus (33:19; 9:16), Hosea (2:23; 1:10), and Isaiah (10:22-23; 1:9; 28:16; 8:14) as Paul gives them, chiefly following the LXX.

Romans 10 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ Ι′

Theme. Israel's failure is unbelief, not lost opportunity: the word of faith is near, universal, and was heard.

Outline.

• A · 10:1-4 — Zeal without knowledge. Paul's heart-prayer is for Israel's salvation (1): they have zeal for God but not according to knowledge (2). Ignorant of God's righteousness and seeking to establish their own, they did not submit to it (3) — for Christ is the end/goal of the law, for righteousness to everyone who believes (4).
• B · 10:5-13 — The word of faith is near. Law-righteousness says 'do and live' (5); faith-righteousness says the word is near, in mouth and heart (6-8). Confess Jesus as Lord and believe in his resurrection, and be saved (9-10); for Scripture promises that everyone who believes will not be put to shame (11). There is no Jew/Greek distinction — the same Lord saves all who call on him (12-13).
• C · 10:14-17 — The chain of proclamation. But calling requires believing, believing requires hearing, hearing requires preaching, preaching requires sending (14-15a): 'how beautiful the feet of those who bring good news' (15b). Yet not all obeyed the gospel (16) — so faith comes from hearing, and hearing through the word of Christ (17).
• D · 10:18-21 — Israel without excuse. Did they not hear? Indeed they did — the message went out to all the earth (18). Did Israel not know? Moses and Isaiah foretold that God would provoke them through a Gentile 'non-nation' and be found by those who did not seek him (19-20); but to Israel God says he stretched out his hands all day to a disobedient and contrary people (21).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 10, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. At v.4 τέλος νόμου ('end of the law') is exegetically contested — 'end/termination,' 'goal/fulfillment,' or both senses together — and is annotated rather than resolved. The chapter cites Leviticus 18:5, Deuteronomy 30:12-14 (christologically reapplied), Isaiah 28:16 and 52:7 and 53:1, Psalm 19:4, Deuteronomy 32:21, and Isaiah 65:1-2, chiefly following the LXX.

Romans 11 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ ΙΑ′

Theme. God has not rejected Israel — the remnant, the olive tree, the mystery of 'all Israel,' and the doxology.

Outline.

• A · 11:1-10 — God has not rejected his people. Has God rejected Israel? By no means — Paul himself is an Israelite (1-2a). As in Elijah's day God kept a remnant of seven thousand (2b-4), so now there is a remnant chosen by grace (5) — and grace excludes works (6). Israel as a whole failed to obtain what it sought; the elect obtained it, the rest were hardened, as Scripture foretold (7-10).
• B · 11:11-16 — The purpose of the stumbling. Did they stumble so as to fall? No — their trespass brought salvation to the Gentiles, to make Israel jealous (11). If their fall means riches for the world, how much more their fullness (12)! Paul magnifies his Gentile ministry to save some of his own (13-14); their rejection is the world's reconciliation, and the firstfruits and root are holy (15-16).
• C · 11:17-24 — The olive tree. Gentile believers are wild branches grafted into Israel's olive tree (17); do not boast over the natural branches — you stand by faith, not your own strength (18-20). God did not spare the natural branches and will not spare you; behold his kindness and severity (21-22). And he is able to graft the natural branches back in — how much more readily than the wild (23-24).
• D · 11:25-32 — The mystery. The mystery: a partial hardening has come on Israel until the fullness of the Gentiles comes in, and so all Israel will be saved (25-27). As to the gospel they are enemies for your sake, but as to election beloved for the fathers' sake — for God's gifts and call are irrevocable (28-29). As you once received mercy through their disobedience, so they will receive mercy; God shut up all in disobedience to have mercy on all (30-32).
• E · 11:33-36 — Doxology. Paul breaks into praise: O the depth of the riches, wisdom, and knowledge of God — his judgments unsearchable, his ways past tracing out (33). Who has known the Lord's mind or been his counselor or given to him first (34-35)? For from him and through him and to him are all things; to him be glory forever (36).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 11, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. At v.6 some later witnesses add a balancing clause ('but if of works, it is no longer grace…'); the shorter text is followed. The meaning of 'all Israel will be saved' (v.26) and of 'and so' (καὶ οὕτως) is much debated — ethnic Israel as a whole at the end, the elect remnant throughout history, or the church as the new Israel — and is annotated rather than resolved. The chapter cites 1 Kings 19, Deuteronomy 29:4, Isaiah 29:10 and 59:20-21, Psalm 69:22-23, and Isaiah 27:9, chiefly following the LXX.

Romans 12 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ ΙΒ′

Theme. The living sacrifice — the hinge from doctrine to ethics; one body and many gifts; genuine love.

Outline.

• A · 12:1-2 — The living sacrifice. The great hinge from doctrine to ethics: in view of God's mercies, present your bodies as a living, holy, acceptable sacrifice — your reasonable worship (1). Do not be conformed to this age but transformed by the renewing of the mind, to discern God's good, acceptable, and perfect will (2).
• B · 12:3-8 — One body, many gifts. Think with sober self-judgment by the measure of faith God assigned (3). As one body has many members with different functions, so the many are one body in Christ, members of one another (4-5); and the differing grace-gifts — prophecy, service, teaching, exhortation, giving, leading, mercy — are each to be exercised in their proper manner (6-8).
• C · 12:9-13 — Genuine love within the body. Let love be without hypocrisy: abhor evil, cling to good (9); show brotherly affection and honor (10); be fervent in zeal, serving the Lord (11); rejoice in hope, endure affliction, persist in prayer (12); share with the saints and pursue hospitality (13).
• D · 12:14-21 — Love toward all, even enemies. Bless persecutors, do not curse (14); rejoice and weep with others, live in harmony and humility, not conceited (15-16). Repay no one evil for evil; so far as it depends on you, live at peace with all (17-18). Never avenge yourselves but leave room for God's wrath; instead feed your enemy — and so overcome evil with good (19-21).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 12, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. Chapter 12 begins the letter's hortatory section (chs. 12-15): the 'therefore' of v.1 grounds all the ethics in the mercies expounded in chs. 1-11. From v.9 onward the Greek is a string of participles (often functioning as imperatives) and verbless phrases, lending the section a staccato, proverbial quality; the renderings supply imperatival force where the syntax implies it. The chapter draws on Deuteronomy 32:35 (v.19) and Proverbs 25:21-22 (v.20).

Romans 13 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ ΙΓ′

Theme. Submission to governing authorities; love as the law's fulfillment; the urgency of the approaching day.

Outline.

• A · 13:1-7 — Submission to authorities. Let everyone submit to the governing authorities, for all authority is from God and the existing powers are instituted by him (1); to resist them is to resist God's ordinance and incur judgment (2). Rulers are no terror to good but to evil — God's servant for your good, but a sword-bearing avenger against wrong (3-4). So submit for conscience' sake, not just fear (5); and pay taxes, revenue, respect, and honor to whom they are owed (6-7).
• B · 13:8-10 — Love fulfills the law. Owe no one anything except to love one another, for the one who loves has fulfilled the law (8). The commandments — against adultery, murder, theft, coveting — are summed up in 'love your neighbor as yourself' (9). Love does no wrong to a neighbor; therefore love is the fulfillment of the law (10).
• C · 13:11-14 — The hour has come. And do this knowing the time: the hour has come to wake from sleep, for salvation is nearer now than when we believed (11). The night is far gone, the day is at hand — so cast off the works of darkness and put on the armor of light (12). Let us walk becomingly as in the day, not in revelry, immorality, or strife (13), but put on the Lord Jesus Christ and make no provision for the flesh (14).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 13, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. Verses 1-7, on submission to governing authorities, are framed as a general principle; the passage does not address the limits of that submission, which the rest of Scripture and later interpreters develop. The chapter draws the commandments from the Decalogue (Exodus 20 / Deuteronomy 5) and Leviticus 19:18 (v.9).

Romans 14 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ ΙΔ′

Theme. The weak and the strong — mutual acceptance over disputable matters; do not judge or cause to stumble.

Outline.

• A · 14:1-4 — Welcome the weak. Receive the one weak in faith, not to dispute over opinions (1): one eats anything, another only vegetables (2). Let the eater not despise the abstainer, nor the abstainer judge the eater, for God has welcomed him (3). Who are you to judge another's servant? To his own master he stands or falls — and the Lord will make him stand (4).
• B · 14:5-9 — To the Lord. One esteems a day above others, another all alike — let each be convinced in his own mind (5). Whoever observes the day, eats, or abstains does so to the Lord with thanksgiving (6). None of us lives or dies to himself; living or dying, we are the Lord's (7-8) — for Christ died and rose to be Lord of dead and living (9).
• C · 14:10-12 — The judgment seat. Why then judge or despise your brother? We will all stand before God's judgment seat (10), for Scripture says every knee will bow and every tongue confess to God (11). So each of us will give an account of himself to God (12).
• D · 14:13-23 — Do not make your brother stumble. Stop judging; resolve instead not to put a stumbling block before a brother (13). Nothing is unclean in itself, but if your eating grieves your brother you no longer walk in love — do not destroy by food one for whom Christ died (14-15). The kingdom is not food and drink but righteousness, peace, and joy in the Spirit (16-18); so pursue peace and edification (19), and do not tear down God's work over food (20-21). Keep your conviction before God; whatever is not from faith is sin (22-23).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 14, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. At v.10 the manuscripts vary between 'the judgment seat of God' (printed here) and 'of Christ.' The doxology now placed at 16:25-27 stands at the end of chapter 14 in a number of witnesses, reflecting the complex transmission of Romans' ending. The chapter cites Isaiah 45:23 (v.11).

Romans 15 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ ΙΕ′

Theme. Bearing with the weak; Jew/Gentile unity in worship; Paul's priestly ministry and travel plans.

Outline.

• A · 15:1-6 — Bear with the weak. The strong ought to bear the failings of the weak and not please themselves (1-2); for Christ did not please himself but bore reproach (3). Scripture was written for our instruction, that we might have hope (4); may the God of endurance grant you one mind, to glorify God with one voice (5-6).
• B · 15:7-13 — Welcome as Christ welcomed. Welcome one another as Christ welcomed you, for God's glory (7): Christ served the circumcised to confirm the promises, and so that the Gentiles might glorify God for his mercy (8-9a) — as a catena of Scripture foretold the nations praising God (9b-12). May the God of hope fill you with joy and peace, to abound in hope by the Spirit (13).
• C · 15:14-21 — Paul's priestly ministry. Confident of the Romans' goodness, Paul has written boldly by the grace given him (14-15) to be a minister of Christ to the Gentiles, a priest of the gospel presenting them as an acceptable offering (16). He boasts only of what Christ has done through him, from Jerusalem to Illyricum (17-19), ambitious to preach where Christ is not yet named (20-21).
• D · 15:22-33 — Travel plans and prayer. Long hindered, Paul now hopes to visit Rome on his way to Spain (22-24), but first must take the collection from Macedonia and Achaia to the poor saints in Jerusalem (25-28). He asks the Romans to strive with him in prayer that he be rescued in Judea and come to them in joy (29-32); the God of peace be with you all (33).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 15, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. The chapter completes the weak/strong exhortation (1-13) and turns to Paul's apostolic ministry and travel plans (14-33). Verses 9-12 are a catena of four Old Testament citations on Gentile praise (Psalm 18:49; Deuteronomy 32:43; Psalm 117:1; Isaiah 11:10), following the LXX. The geographical and travel notes (vv.19, 24, 28) bear on the date and setting of the letter.

Romans 16 — ΠΡΟΣ ΡΩΜΑΙΟΥΣ ΙϚ′

Theme. Letter close — Phoebe's commendation, the roll of greetings, a warning against division, the doxology.

Outline.

• A · 16:1–16 — Commendation and greetings. Paul commends Phoebe, deacon of Cenchreae and a benefactor, asking the Romans to receive and help her (1–2). Then follows a long roll of personal greetings — Prisca and Aquila and their house church, Epaenetus, Mary, Andronicus and Junia, and many others, a striking number of them women and hard workers (3–15) — closing with the holy kiss and greetings from all the churches (16).
• B · 16:17–20 — Warning and assurance. Watch out for those who cause divisions and offenses contrary to the teaching, and avoid them (17); such people serve their own appetites and deceive the naive (18). Your obedience is famous — be wise as to good and innocent as to evil (19); and the God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet. Grace be with you (20).
• C · 16:21–23 — Greetings from companions. Greetings are sent from Paul's companions: Timothy and his kinsmen Lucius, Jason, and Sosipater (21); Tertius, the scribe who wrote the letter (22); and Gaius his host, Erastus the city treasurer, and Quartus (23).
• D · 16:25–27 — The doxology. The letter closes with a doxology: to him who is able to strengthen you according to Paul's gospel and the proclamation of Jesus Christ — according to the revelation of the mystery kept secret for ages but now disclosed through the prophetic Scriptures and made known to all the nations for the obedience of faith (25–26) — to the only wise God be glory through Jesus Christ forever (27).

Translation & textual notes. The Greek follows the standard critical text of Romans 16, uniform in its main wording across the modern editions (NA28, SBLGNT, THGNT) and itself an ancient, public-domain text; NA28's distinctively copyrighted critical apparatus is not reproduced. Verse punctuation is editorial and conventional. This edition follows the critical text in omitting v.24 (the grace-benediction 'The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen.,' a later assimilation to v.20); the verse numbering therefore runs 1–23, then 25–27. The placement of the closing doxology (vv.25–27) is one of the most complex textual problems in the New Testament: manuscripts variously locate it here, at the end of chapter 14, at the end of chapter 15, in more than one place, or omit it. At v.7 the name Ἰουνία(ν) is most likely the feminine 'Junia,' and ἐπίσημοι ἐν τοῖς ἀποστόλοις may mean either 'outstanding among the apostles' or 'well known to the apostles.' Many of the persons greeted bear common slave or freedman names, suggesting the social makeup of the Roman house churches.

Major translation & exegetical cruxes

Throughout the project, points where the Greek legitimately admits more than one rendering or reading were flagged in the lexical notes and chapter text_notes rather than decided silently. Where a choice had to be made for the running translation, the more common analysis was generally taken and the alternative noted. The principal cruxes:

Other recurring translation choices noted in the lexical tier include the Semitic ἐν of exchange/price (1:23, 25), the LXX phrase περὶ ἁμαρτίας as 'sin offering' (8:3), the cultic/priestly imagery applied to ministry and the collection (15:16, 27), and the framing ‘obedience of faith’ that brackets the letter (1:5; 16:26).

How the data set is organized

• romans-interlinear/data/romans{1..16}.json — the durable scholarly content: one JSON object per chapter (reference, titles, text-note, outline, and verses with per-word annotation and per-verse discourse notes).
• romans-interlinear/ — a chapter-agnostic renderer (stdlib-only HTML; headless-Chromium PDF) that turns any conforming data file into a six-tier interlinear document. Adding a chapter requires no code changes.
• Rendered artifacts — Romans{1..16}.html and Romans{1..16}.pdf at the repository root.

The interpretive tiers (syntactic function, semantic force, discourse structure, and the proposed argument outlines) are interpretive by nature; where readings legitimately differ, the more common analysis was generally chosen, and the lexical notes are condensed orientation rather than a substitute for a lexicon (e.g. BDAG) or a full commentary.